An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welfare Economics Economics Essay

An Inquiry Into Pigou And Welf atomic number 18 political economy Economics examineArthur Cecil Pigou (1877-1959) was among the last in the long line of classical economists associated with the Cambridge School. Pigou first entered Kings College, Cambridge on a Minor cognizance in History and Modern Languages (1896). Observing his palpable brilliance, Alfred Marshall and Henry Sidgwick together encouraged him to sprout his academic vigour into the study of political economy (Collard, 1981). Although significantly exercised by Henry Sidgwick, Pigou was fore some Marshalls backer and is often considered the embodiment and extension of Marshall himself (Walker, 1989). Like Marshall, Pigou was attracted to the pragmatical value of political economy and believed the main break up of learning frugal science was to be able to see through the bogus frugal arguments of politicians (Champer flatne, 1959 264) he believed frugalals to be an instrument for vigorous-disposed betterme nt non intellectual gymnastics.The numerous treats by Pigou dressing various fields of sparing thought. Pigous marked interest in how political sympathies insurance could increase depicted object well-being? is app atomic number 18nt throughout his work and led him to invented overmuch of sophisticated public finance curiously arguments and rationale for regimen hinderance in the economy (Pressman, 1999). Further much, his nonable contribution, Economics of Welf be (1932) occupies a unparalleled position in the history of economic thought and has earned him recognition as the father of modern wellbeing economic science (Groe in the buffegen, 2003). A study into Pigous writings on the economics of offbeat requires one to be selective due to the wide-ranging scope of topics that may be covered this newspaper volition on that pointof concentrate on the theoretical backbone of Pigous work and aim to analyse different critiques of his theory of public assistance in Section I. Section II entrust consider the foundations of and influences on Pigous work and explore criticisms of a lack of superiority in his writings. Finally, in Section III, we will investigate the Pigous position on government preventative and analyse his suggested policy prescriptions.SECTION IWelf atomic number 18 economics is concerned to investigate the dominant influence through which the economic welf be of the world, or of a fall aparticular country, is likely to be increased. The hope of those who chase aft(prenominal) it is to suggest lines of action or non-action on the part of the State or of private persons that superpower protect such influences (Pigou 1951 287)Welf atomic number 18 economics is a normative subject, distinct from supportive economics. Whilst the theoretical elements of positive economics provide theorems that can be tested, normative economics and the propositions of welf are economics project altogether a very different content (Gra ff, 1957 2). The difference between normative and positive theory becomes apparent when we sweat to determine whether welfare in truth increases or not analysis of a positive theory requires testing of its conclusions which are clearly observable, conversely to test a normative theory of welfare one must(prenominal) look to test its as nerve centerptions instead than conclusions since welfare is not an observable amount. Thus the assumptions attached to a normative theory must be care bounteousy and thoroughly scrutinised and the credibility of a theory of welfare depends on how realistic and relevant its assumptions are (Graff, 1957 3). This section will, in turn analyse the major assumptions do by Pigou for the development of his concepts of economic welfare and internal dividend which are key to his theory.Economic WelfarePigou defined economic welfare subjectively as quantities of satis itemion or states of consciousnesswith psychic returns of satis concomitantion, (Pigo u 1926 10). Recognising that subsequent investigation into the causes that could travel welfare would be impracticable, he limits the scope of the inquiry to that part of well-disposed welfare that can be brought directly or indirectly into relation with the measuring-rod of cash (Pigou 1926 11). To justify the restrictions on his scope of elements compiling the social welfare he postulates that since a persons income is an observable money value, it could be inferred that, infra certain conditions, people could bang a direct of material welfare that could be purchased by their income (Mishan, 1969).The connection between increased income and the some otherwise elements of welfare is much harder to define and and so Pigou explicitly recognises that since economic welfare is only a part of welfare as a wholeso that a attached change in economic welfare will seldom synchronise with an reach welfare as a whole (Pigou, 1926 12). Thus, although a change in economic welfare ma y not beatnik the change in come in welfare, it may always propel the change thitherfore Pigou concludes that economic welfare and total welfare are positively related (Durlauf and Blume, 2008).UTILITY DEBATE? Doesnt he assume something stupid about utility interpersonal utility or something?National DividendThe conception of the National Dividend is not an academic toy, but a practical instrument of great power designed for service in the concrete solution of social fusss (Pigou, 1912 493)In order to predict the effects of policies on material welfare at the aggregate direct, an aggregate measure was required. Pigou identified the national dividend as the clutch aggregate measure suggesting that economic causes act on the economic welfare of any(prenominal) country, not directly, but through the making and using of the objective counterpart of economic welfare which the economists call the national dividend (Pigou, 1926 31). The national dividend is described as the flow of goods and services annually produced after maintaining big(p) intact and is a key concept for Pigous analyses of how policies or institutions affect economic welfare (Scott, 1984 59). Pigou outlines the ii criteria for detecting improvements in social welfare which reflect the importance of this key concept to his theory of welfare firstly increases in the value of national dividend, provided the share for the brusk is not thereby reduced, will steadfastlyness in an increase in social welfare. Secondly, transfers from the rich to the poor without any reduction in the national dividend will in any case yield higher social welfare (Pigou, 1926).Several critics bring on voiced adversary to Pigous definition of national dividend specifically on the issue of maintaining capital intact.1He states that if the quantity of every unit of measurement of a countrys capital stock remains unchanged over a certain period, then raze is the money value has increased/decreased, the total c apital stock has been exactly maintained. He argues that changes in the money value of the stock due to cosmopolitan equipment casualty changes or changes in the rates of interest are irrelevant to the national dividend (Scott, 1984 60). Only a decline in the physical quantity of capital has to be made good (or replaced) with new capital of the same value (provided the valuation is made when the deterioration actually takes place) and depreciation due to interest rates or price changes are irrelevant (Pigou, 1926 46). The national income in any period is therefore the sum of consumption and clear investment minus that portion of gross investment necessary to maintain capital intact (Scott, 1984 Pigou, 1926).Myint (1948) highlights the inadequacies of transposing this concept of maintaining capital intact (which is essentially a physical level of analysis) to derive the value of capital from judge value of income yielded (essentially a subjective level of analysis) by merely maki ng good the physical wear and tear (Myint, 1948 174). He finds fault with the fact that depreciation (due to obsolescence2) must be allowed for even if capital goods are in perfect condition. This issue as well sparked a heated debate between Hayek (1941) and Pigou (1941) in which Hicks (1942) also intervened. Hayek attacked Pigou on this point stating, what is meant by maintaining capital intact according to Pigou consists in effect of the suggestion that for this purpose we should disregard obsolescence whether it is due to foreseeable or unpredictable causes and require merely that such losses of value of the existing stock of capital goods be made good as are due to physical wear and tear (Hayek, 1941 276). Hayek finds Pigous procedure neither helpful theoretically nor in actual practice (Hayek, 1941 276). The root of the disagreement lies in their different conceptions of depreciation part Pigou maintains that only a decline in the present value of capital due to factors w hich affect the expected quantity is relevant whilst Hayek argues the the real problem of maintaining capital intact arises not after such losses have been made, but when the entrepreneur plans his investment (Hayek, 1941 therefore a decline in expected quantity will count as depreciation regardless of whether it is due to factors affecting expected quantity or prices (Hill, 1999 2). While Hayeks biting criticism seemingly nethermines Pigous conception of national dividend, Scott (1984) contends both arguments are in fact sound and it is the purpose for which the definition is of critical importance whilst Pigou was concerned with net income social income, Hayek was referring essentially to idiosyncratic people or firms. READ HICKS ADDITION TO THE DEBATE AND ADD IN WHAT HE SAYS ABOUT THE deviance IN PURPOSES FOR THE CONCEPT.SECTION IIWhen a man sets out upon any course of inquiry, the object of his wait may be either light or fruit either knowledge for its own stake or knowle dge for the sake of good things to which it lives, (Pigou, 1926 3)Pigou is widely considered the father of modern welfare economics and the rudimentary concepts of early welfare theory are attributed to his work, Economics of Welfare (1926). However, there are commentators who speculate that no matter how innovative Pigou may have been, many of his major theoretical contributions to welfare analysis lacked originality and were base on pre-Marshallian concepts ODonnell (1979) implies Henry Sidgwick is a major influence who is not attributed sufficient credit.ODonnell (1979) argues that as a firm follower of Marshall, Pigou utilised his marginal analyses of market processes. However, they differed on their beliefs in the ability of competitive markets and economic liberty to stimulate economic growth and reduce poverty Marshall was confident that competitive markets, left alone, would lead to businesslike parceling and that government intervention would create so many disincenti ves that it may cause to a greater extent harm than good (Walker, 1989). Conversely Pigou argued that fairness is only to be achieved through extensive government intervention. Moreover, when Pigou (1926, 1928) seek to configurationalise the problems of market failure and the appropriate government solutions, he turned to Sigdwicks earlier propositions on government intervention. More than half a century before Pigou, Sidgwick and J. S. Mill initiated the transition from the non-interventionist approach of the classical tradition to the more interventionist orientation that characterised neoclassical welfare theory and influenced Pigous theory of welfare (Medema, 2007).Subsequently it is argued that in delineate welfare and the general qualifications for a welfare meter (wherein the similarities between basic welfare considerations of Pigou and Sidgwick are obvious), Pigou is not original (ODonnell, 1979). He was, however, genuinely innovative in introducing the terms Marginal Social Net mathematical product (MSNP) and Marginal Private Net Product (MPNP) although Sidgwick (1897) expressed similar conclusions about divergences between private and social benefits marginal considerations were not part of his analysis and his generalised concept was not as concise as Pigous (ODonnell, 1979). Therefore, whilst Pigous contribution to welfare economics is undeniable, he is criticised for developing what is essentially a synthesis of ideas and analyses from Marshall and Sidgwick. Yet, if we again invoke the purpose for his inquiry and his beliefs about the practical use of economics, the fruits of his contribution yielded an expansive literature on not only welfare economics but also public finance and environmental economics for which he is undeniably responsible the purpose isthat the fabric of theory shall be a yielding garment, satisfactory the varied and complex reality of economic life as coatingly as is demanded by the criterion that the conclusions to which the theory leads shall be both useful and general (Young, 1913 686).SECTION IIIThe working of self-interest is generally beneficent, not because of some natural coincidence between the self-interest of each and the good of all, but because gracious institutions are arranged so as to compel self-interest to work in directions in which it will be beneficent (Cannan in Pigou, 1926 130)We move now to the subject of government intervention in the economy. In his relatively unknown es hypothecate on State Action and Laissez-Faire Pigou stated the real head is not whether the State should act or not, but on what principles, in what degree and over what departments of economic life its action should be carried on (Pigou in Medema, 2009 65). In Economics of Welfare (1926) Pigou controversially advocates the consume for government intervention in the air of taxes and bounties to correct for market failures and our defective telescopic faculty.External EconomiesIn Economics of Welf are (1926) Pigou originated the innovative theoretical distinction between social and private benefits and cost, illustrating how private takings costs for a firm do not necessarily reflect total social costs of production. This analysis formed the posterior for much of the analysis in modern environmental economics (Myint 1948). He states that when value of MSNP (marginal physical product of the factor as appropriated by the producer * market price of product) is greater than MSNP (total of products and services from employment of the additional factor no matter to whom they may accrue) external economies exist and the government must intervene in the market to ensure the industry contracts the optimal end product may be reached and economic welfare may thus be maximised (Pigou, 1926).Coase what coase said economists have tended to overestimate the advantages of government intervention and that such intervention may not actually be desirable in certain situations?MonopoliesPig ou says that monopolies are bad and that governments should intervene to make sure they dont overrun? Something like this? further people argue against that and say that this is not good and his assumptions are wrongCONCLUSIONGeneral best and national dividend are major elements that constitute his theory of welfare.Section INational DividendNational Dividend and General OptimumNational Dividend he outlines the national dividend which is defined as _______. Is very important because it is the measure he outlines as the aggregate index finger of welfare.DiscussionHayek criticised his conception of the national dividend because of his assumption of Maintaining capital intact stating that __________________General Optimum and Criterion for welfare maximisationHe says that anything that increases the national dividend, so long as it doesnt reduce the share going to the poor will increase total welfare and anything that increases the share of the poor so long as it doesnt affect the n ational dividend, will also increase welfare.DiscussionBuchanan (http//www.heinonline.org.ezproxy.webfeat.lib.ed.ac.uk/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/jlecono2id=1size=2 appeal=journalsindex=journals/jlecono126) outlines the difference between Pigous optimum and Paretos optimumODonnell criticises Pigou for lack of originality, claiming that he has basically created a synthesis of Pre-Marshallian ideas and Marshallian analysis (the only thing original being his contribution of MSNP and MPNP). Myint criticises Pigou for trying to impose Marshalls physical analysis onto what should be a subjective level of analysis since welfare theory, as argued by graff, is a normative theory.Section IIExternal effectuatePigou basically says that private firms do not always take into account theMonopoliesMONOPOLIES6. I do not pop the question to say very much in this paper about the welfare economics of monopoly and liberal competition, for this is altogether too enceinte a subject to be capable of useful treat- ment on the subdue here available. A very large part of the estab- lished theory of imperfect competition falls down the stairs the head of welfare economics, and it is actually much the strongest part of the theory which does so. Considered as a branch of positive economics, the theory of imperfect competition is even now not very convincing the assumption that the person producer has a clear idea of the demand curve confronting him has been justifiably questioned, and the presence of intractable elements of oligopoly in most markets has been justifiably suspected. When it is considered as a branch of welfare economics, the theory of imperfect competition has a much clearer status. Oligopoly and monopolistic competition fall into their places as reasons for the inequality between price and marginal cost, whose consequences are then a most fertile field for study along welfare lines. It is perhaps rather to be regretted that modern theories of imperfect competition have not been cast more overtly into this form for the general apparatus of welfare economics would have made it possible to state some of the most important pro- positions in a more guarded way than usual. Take, for example, the very important question of the optimum number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry, which is so near the centre of modern discussion. Since (ex hypothesi) the different firms are producing products which are economicaly distinguishable, the question is one of those which falls on a lower floor the heading of our third set of optimum conditions-the totl conditions we have to ask whether a reduction in the number of products would be conducive to a movement towards the optimum. chew over then that a particular firm is closed down. The loss involved im its cessation is measured by the pay which would have to be given(p) to consumers to make up for their loss of the opportunity to consume the missing product, plus the compensation which would ha ve to be given to producers to make up for the excess of their earnings in this use over what they couldearn in other uses. The loss is therefore measured by Marshalls unnecessary (Consumers Surplus 1 plus Producers Surplus). Under conditions of perfect competition, this loss is a net loss. For when the factors are transferred to other uses, they will have to be scattered about at the margins of those uses and (since the earnings of a factor equal the value of its marginal product) the additional production made possible by the use of the factors in these new places is equal in value to the earnings of the factors (already accounted for). Under perfect competition, the marginal productivity equity ensures that there is no producers surplus generated at the new margins while, since the marginal unit of any commodity is worth no more than what is paid for it, there can be no consumers surplus either. Thus there is zero point to set against the initial loss there cannot be a movemen t towards the optimum if the number of products is reduced. But if competition is imperfect, there is something to set on the other side. The earnings of a factor are now less than the value of its marginal product by an amount which varies with the degree of monopolistic exploitation and therefore the increment to production which can be secured by using the factors at other margins is worth more than the earnings of the factors. There is a producers surplus, even at the margin, and this producers surplus may outweigh the initial loss. The general condition for a particular firm to be such that its human race is compatible with the optimum is that the sum of the consumers and producers surpluses generated by its activities must be greater than the producers surplus which would be generated by employing its factors (and exploiting them) elsewhere. The rule usually given is a special case of this general rule. If entry to the industry is free, price equals just cost, and the produ cers surplus generated by the firm as a whole can be leave out. If the products of the different firms are very close substitutes, or merely distinguished by irrational pre- ferences, consumers surplus can perhaps be neglected as well. With these simplifications, the number of firms in an impecompetitive industry is always excessive, so long as price is greater than marginal cost anywhere in the industry. (Or, if we can retain the identity of price with average cost, the number of firms is excessive until average cost is reduced to a minimum.) These, however, are simplifications it is not always avowedly that the number of firms in an imperfectly competitive industry is excessive, though very often it may be. out front recommending in practice a policy of shutting down redundant firms, we ought to be sure that the full condition is satisfied and we ought to be very sure that the discarded factors will in fact be transferred to more productive uses. In a world where the most the economist can hope for is that he will be listened to occasionallY, that is not always so certain.In the absence of costs of movement the allocation of resources by competitive markets achieves universally equal marginal private net products. However, the production of ideal output requires equality of marginal social net products. Where private and social net products diverge, there is a prima(predicate) facie case for reallocation of resources (Economics of welfare page 136)The Economics of WelfarePigous major work, Wealth and Welfare (1912) and Economics of Welfare (1920), developed Alfred Marshalls concept of externalities (see Pigou, 1920), costs imposed or benefits conferred on others that are not taken into account by the person taking the action.Pigou attributed welfare gains to the greater marginal utility a dollar bill of income had for the poor compared to the rich a transfer of income from rich to poor increased total utility that could also be defined as increased q uality of life. Pigou also argued that welfare gains came from improving the quality of the work force through changes in the distribution of income or by improved working conditions.He argued that the existence of externalities was sufficient justification for government intervention. The reason was that if someone was creating a negative externality, such as pollution, he would engage in too much of the activity that generated the externality. Someone creating a positive externality, say, by educating himself and thus making himself more interesting to other people, would not invest enough in his education because he would not perceive the value to himself as being as great as the value to society.To admonish the activity that caused the negative externality, Pigou advocated a tax on the activity. To encourage the activity that created the positive externality, he advocated a subsidy. These are now called Pigovian (or Pigovian) taxes and subsidies.Let us now consider two excerpts that typify Pigous social policy, mentioned preceding(prenominal)One person A, in the course of rendering some service, for which payments is made, to a second person B, circumstantially also renders services or disservices to other persons of such sort that payment cannot be exacted from benefited parties or compensation enforced on behalf of the injured parties (Pigou 1932).It is possible for the State to remove the divergence between private and social net product through bounties and taxes (Pigou 1932).In the Economics of Welfare, Pigou says that his aim is to ascertain how far the free play of self-interest, acting under the existing legal system, tends to distribute the countrys resources in the way most favorable to the production of a large national dividend, and how far it is feasible for State action to improve upon natural tendencies.He starts by referring to sanguine followers of the classical economists who have argued that the value of production would be maximized if the government refrained from any interference in the economic system and the economic arrangements were those which came about naturally (Pigou 1932). Pigou goes on to say that if self-interest does promote economic welfare, it is because human institutions have been devised to make it so. He concludesBut even in the most advanced States there are failures and imperfections there are many obstacles that prevent a communitys resources from being distributed in the most efficient way. The study of these constitutes our present problem its purpose is essentially practical. It seeks to bring into clearer light some of the ways in which it now is, or eventually may become, feasible for governments to control the play of economic forces in such wise as to promote the economic welfare, and through that, the total welfare, of their citizens as a whole (Pigou 1932).Pigous thoughts are further elucidatedSome have argued that no State action is get hold ofed. But the system has performed as well as it has because of State action Nonetheless, there are still imperfections. it might happen that costs are thrown upon people not directly concerned, through, say, uncompensated damage done to surrounding woods by sparks from railway engines. All such effects must be included-some of them will be positive, others negative elements-in calculation up the social net product of the marginal increment of any volume of resources turned into any use or place (Pigou 1932)To illustrate this discussion further, let us consider an example venture a paper nerd was being planned on a certain river and an economist was given all facts about the river-in-question and told that a paper submarine was to be sited so that it could discharge oxygen-consuming waste into the river. regard further that the economist was asked to analyze the situation, offer a policy for siting the mill, and comment on the practical aspects of adopting the policy proposal as a general rule. The first appro ach involves an externality analysis, where the paper mill pollutes the river, noble an unwanted cost on society, a cost that does not enter the mill owners profit calculations. This is the problem of social cost.Following this line of inquiry, failure to consider the external cost leads to too much paper and too little environmental quality. This economist would be using an analytical framework developed by A. C. Pigou who would argue that pollution generates a social cost that should be dealt with by the central government. He would propose a system of taxes, bounties, and regulations for resolving the problem. Most likely, the economist using this framework would call for some form of effluent taxes or regulation to control the mills discharge.Pigous solution spoke of market failure and the need for a central authority to fine-tune markets so that the appropriate level of pollution would emerge. This approach called for collection of complicated and rapidly changing information , translating the information into a tax or regulation, and courtly the tax or rule on the polluter.In fact, modern environmental economics began with the work of Arthur Pigou, who developed the analysis of externalities. His take is attached to the traditional policy proposal, Pigouvian taxes on polluting activities, equal to the value of the damages.Coases alternative solutionPigous approach came under attack from Lionel Robbins and Frank Knight. The New Welfare Economics that arose in the late 1930s dispensed with much of Pigous analytical toolbox. Later, the Public Choice theorists rejected Pigous approach for its naive benevolent despot assumption. Finally, Nobel Laureate Ronald Coase exhibit that efficient outcomes could be generated without government intervention when property rights are clearly defined. Coase presents his case in the oblige The Problem of Social Cost (1960).To explain this alternative let us continue with the paper mill example. There is a second approa ch likely taken. In this line of thinking the economist considers the paper mill and others who wish to consume or enjoy water quality as part of a competitive market where people bargain for the use of rights to scarce property. This analysis has nothing to do with polluters imposing cost on society, but everything to do with competing demands for use of an asset.If rights to the asset are defined and assigned to members of the river-basin community, then those planning to build the paper mill must bargain with the rightholders to determine just how much, if any, waste will discharge into the river.If the rights are held by the mill, then the existing communities along the river must bargain with the mill owner for rights to water quality. Again, bargaining determines the amount of discharge to the river.This approach relies on the work of Ronald Coase (1960). Using this framework, an economist might recommend a meeting of the mill owners and others who have access to the river. Af ter organizing the parties, negotiations would ensue. If existing river users owned water-quality rights, the mill would have to buy the rights in order to discharge specified amounts of waste. If the mill had the right to pollute, existing river users would have to buy water quality from the mill, paying the mill to limit its discharges.In other words, Pigouvian taxes do support the important principle that polluters should pay for the damages they inflict on society. But in both law and economics, a more conservative analysis has gained popularity. Legal scholar Ronald Coase argued that taxes and regulation might be unnecessary, since under some circumstances polluters and those harmed by pollution could engage in private negotiation to determine the appropriate compensation. While Pigous examples of externalities often involved simultaneous harms to large numbers of people, Coases examples tended to be localized, individual nuisances, where one persons demeanour disturbed the i mmediate neighbors. The image of environmental externalities as localized nuisances serves to trivialize the real problems of widespread, collective threats to health and nature. Creative alternative readings of Coase have been suggested at times, but the dominant interpretation of his work has provided an intellectual basis for the retreat from regulation.Comparison of Pigous and Coases approachesEvidence of the record of Coases intellectual influence is seen in the count of citations to his 1960 article, which are shown in Yardley (1977). The citation data of Coases (1960) The Problem of Social Cost and Pigous (1932) The Economics of Welfare are superimposed on a count of Federal Register pages for the same years.The data mapping suggests several things. First, Pigous influence on academics seems to operate at a steady state. There is no evidence that Pigovians were responding to the growth of regulation occurring approximately them. The Coase citations indicate the reverse. Ref erences to his ideas seem to be a reaction to th

Perceptions of ESL Teachers in Taiwan

Perceptions of ESL Teachers in TaiwanSYNOPSISThis study suss outs ESL program teachers experiences, perceptions, attitudes and utilize of schoolroom judgment in Taiwan. It is aimed to explore teachers understanding of schoolroom sound judgment and their appraisal strategies moreover, to examine whether there be any relationships between teachers experiences, perceptions and social occasion of classroom measurement in private ESL schools in Taiwan. xxx teachers across three private ESL schools were surveyed character a questionnaire. Among 30 teachers, 4 teachers volunteered to participate in the semi-structured call into questions. data collected from questionnaire and interview provides the researcher with an cleverness into teachers perceptions, attitudes and use of sagacity methods in their classroom.The results show that ESL program teachers were appointed ab out the effectiveness of classroom assessment and formative assessment strategies and had a tendency to use positively charged feedback to encourage ingesters to improve their linguistic process ability. Most teachers had more than 3 years of teach experience in principle side and placed focus on formative assessment in order to ensure schools policy, learners needfully, and p arnts demands.There is a need to do further research in such unique educational context, questionable ESL schools in Taiwan, to explore teachers difficulties and needs moreover, to provide support, such as teachers in-service train, which may lead to benefiting learners. physical objectThis mixed methods research is designed to investigate ESL private school teachers perceptions, attitude and use of classroom assessment in Taiwan. Two instruments are used in this research, including a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews, to explore teachers experiences, attitudes, and perceptions of classroom assessment and their suffer assessment strategies.Rationale and contextThis study has been motivated by two cistrons first, in 2010, Dr. Rea-Dickins introduced the central characteristics of classroom assessment in Language Testing and Assessment (LTA) course, such as providing larn opportunities for eruditeness or language awareness and nurturing language, which helped me to gain new knowledge about the concept of assessment for learning, in cost of formative assessment. After reading several research studies in relation to classroom-based assessment, I recognize the benefits of assessment, peculiar(prenominal) with formative assessment, and how teachers can monitor learner progress, inform teaching and support learning by dint of using multiple assessment methods in the classroom. I have the desire to understand whether side of meat teachers use motley formative assessment methods, such as teacher and peer feedback, scaffolding and assessment to help learners prove learning or they mainly focus on grading and recording learning progress.The second factor is related to the fact that we have relatively little knowledge at ESL private school teachers classroom assessment hold and their understanding and attitude toward assessment in Taiwan moreover, this is an area in which it appears that may have an impact on young learners in learning English. Assessment plays a central and all important(predicate) role both in teaching and learning. Teachers use their own assessment practices, which may have the effectiveness do work on their learners learning, to assess and improve learners language ability.In addition, assessment is synonymous to exams and tests for most teachers, pupils, and parents In Taiwan where traditional paper-and pencil assessment remained as the main acknowledgment informing learners learning (Yip, 2005). Edelenbos and Kubanek-German (2004) to a fault point out the assumption that formal testing is universally referred to the only assessment methods a teacher uses. McNamara (2000) noted that traditional paper-and pencil language assessment and performance assessment are two major forms of assessment. In other words, English teachers tend to use the latter to know how their learners use their existing language knowledge related in a given context and to measure learners language ability at the end of a certain period of teaching and learning through the former. As can be seen, the notion of assessment is generally associated with testing and it seems to be under-developed in fields of applied linguistics and general education. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate how English teachers perceive the concept of classroom assessment and what assessment methods they use in their classroom in Taiwan.1.2.1 English learning environment in TaiwanIn 1997, the Ministry of direction (MOE) implemented educational reform and introduced the Nine-Year Integrated political program (NYIC) which has greatly influenced the syllabus and materials design of elementary and last schools in Taiwan. One of the majo r changes is that pupils, who used to begin learning English in junior spirited schools (age 11), scratch line to learn English as a Foreign Language in grade 3 (age 9) in elementary schools. English instructions were officially incorporated into elementary school education which brought more business opportunities on English learning and teaching due to the change magnitude demand for English learning. much(prenominal) changing situation has also impact the age of learning English in Taiwan, where children now start to learn English at an early age.In addition, according to The Guidelines of English Learning Area in Grade 1-9 Curriculum, the new English syllabus beams a more communicative orientation and places focus on teacher-learners interactions. It also aims to create an enjoyable learning environment to motivate learners to speak English in English classroom. This appears to suggest that teachers should use more formative assessment methods, in terms of encouraging learn ers to improve learning and providing more language learning opportunities to them.Furthermore, learners are expected to achieve three goals in Grade 1-9 CurriculumTo equip with basic communicative competence and apply it into real-life situations.To develop learning strategies and be able to learn language effectively and autonomously.To gain knowledge about foreign cultures and be able to respect several(predicate) cultures.The adjustment in English curriculum is consistent with the current trend in research studies of English as an Additional Language (EAL). Teachers are acting as supporters to scaffold and motivate learners to enhance learning during the whole learning process. In addition, Taiwanese government empowers local schools and teachers to choose teaching materials, such as textbooks, to meet learners needs moreover, it begins to value pupils individual differences. By doing so, teachers may be able to choose impound tasks and activities for their learners and focus on individual learning. As can be seen, teachers are now generally increasing the use of formative assessment strategies to assist learners learning in the classroom in Taiwan1.2.2 shaping Assessment in language classrooms in TaiwanGenerally, English teachers in Taiwan are necessitate to correct all the errors in all students work, including worksheets, textbooks and practice books, due to the pressure from the schools and parents. Such demand from schools and parents is unitary of major sources of pressure for teachers in Taiwan. As can be seen, teacher feedback, particularly with written feedback, appears to be seen as one major part of teachers routine work. Huang (2006) reports that in Taiwan most English teachers use teacher feedback, as a formative assessment method, on learners grammatical errors in writing.In addition, portfolio assessment is a common assessment tool used by English teachers in Taiwan. Tsai (2004) and Wang (2002) both refer that teachers use portfolio ass essment as an instrument to assess learners achievement rather than improving learning moreover, Wu (2007) points out that instead of using portfolios assessment in a formative way most teachers use it for summational purposes, in terms of recording each learners achievement. Furthermore, Yip (2005) reports that traditional standardized tests remain the main source of informing and measuring learners learning for most English teachers in Taiwan. As can be seen, the dominance of classroom assessment may not have been identified in the language assessment belles-lettres and assessment has not reached its full potential in English classrooms in Taiwan.Organization of this researchIn the next chapter, literature on relevant issues involves definition and functions of classroom assessment and assessment of young learners are reviewed. Methodology of data collection and analysis and a disputeion of ethical, validity and reliability issues are introduced in Chapter 3, followed by the p resentation of the findings and discussion derived from the results of both questionnaire and interview data. Chapter 5 summaries the research findings and provides demarcation lines and future research.CHAPTER 5 determination5.1 IntroductionThis research has explored teachers attitudes, perceptions, and use of assessment in classrooms. In this chapter, limitations of the study will first be discussed, followed by Implications for pedagogy and this study.5.2 Limitations of the studyThere are several limitations and problematic aspects in the methodology. First, one limitation in this research is the small size sample (N=30) which may influence the reliability of the result in relation to the correlationship between teachers years of teaching experience and their assessment methods. Size of the sample is vitalfor an right estimate of the relationship between variables. In addition, without classroom observation, it is difficult to examine teachers day-to-day assessment practice an d the whole process of assessment. Observation plays a significant role in confirming teachers interview responses with their genuine assessment practice in the classroom. Follow-up interviews are also important in gaining some insight into the behavioural patterns and assessment practice of teachers during the assessment process by providing explanations of their instructional and diagnostic behavior and assessment strategies. The involvement of a larger questionnaire sample size, classroom observation and follow-up interviews may lead to growing reliability of the data and a better and completed understanding of teachers assessment practice in classrooms.5.3 Implications for pedagogy and teacher trainingAll 5 interviewed teachers indicate that they gain new information about assessment through meeting with teachers from the same grade, for instance, all grade 1 teachers have a meeting to discuss teaching ideas and lesson plans once a week. However, there seems to be an insuffici ency level of in-service training activities for meeting the needs of ESL program teachers. Teachers recognize the importance of developing knowledge, competence, capacities and classroom assessment strategies in order to improve teaching and learners learning. This may suggest that there is a need to provide continuing professional development (CPD) and training courses to update new knowledge and information, in relation to planning for teaching, practical approaches and assessment, and more importantly to reflect on their own teaching.5.3 Implications for further researchThere is a critical need for more studies to investigate ESL program teachers difficulty in implementing classroom assessment strategies in schools and their diagnostic competence, in terms of their observational and interpretative ability, during classroom teaching. Due to teachers decision-making, assessment cognition network (Yin 2005) and teacher diagnostic competence (Edelenbos and Kubanek-German 2004) are key elements in supporting and assessing learners in classrooms. Moreover, their capacities, knowledge and beliefs may have an impact on how they assess learner performance during the teaching and their diagnostic competence, including the skills they use to guess what learners want to say and the abilities to provide language samples of learners language growth, may influence the amount of language learning opportunities they provide for individual learner during the teaching and learning.Furthermore, further research is needed in exploring teachers representation and implementation of classroom assessment to reveal factors which influence teachers perceptions and interpretation of assessment. In addition, ESL program teachers use of the materials, which involve standardized and teacher made tests and a rotary of assessment instruments, should also be examined, in terms of the reliability and validity of teacher assessment. Finally, the scope of so-called ESL school teachers class room assessment perceptions and strategies research should be expanded to include other Asia countries, such as Korea and China.5.4 ConclusionThe focus of this research is to investigate so-called ESL school teachers perceptions, attitudes and use of classroom assessment in Taiwan, an EFL context. A mixed methods approach is used to collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data, including questionnaire and interview data. This study provides a window to reveal how teachers , who aim to enhance Taiwanese learners English ability through adopting ESL curriculum and teaching materials to teach learners in an EFL context, perceive the construct of classroom assessment, their attitudes toward assessment and use of assessment methods. The results show a strong emphasis on formative, as opposed to summative, assessment practice among 30 teachers across 3 private ESL schools moreover, the data suggests a need for CPD courses to improve teaching and learning and to preserve tea chers from suffering burnout and emotional exhaustion.

Analysis of Saddam Husseins Trial

Analysis of ibn Talal Hussein Husseins TrialFrank KopeskiOn serve 19 2003 The united States along with tout ensembleied forces invaded Iraq and marked the emerge of the Iraq warfare. The Conflict later received the name Operation Iraki granting immunity by the United States. The invasion consisted of 21 days of major beleaguer operations in which a joint force of army from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Poland invaded Iraq and overthrew the Baathist government of ibn Talal Hussein Hussein. The invasion phase consisted primarily of a conventionally fought war which concluded with the capture of the Iraqi capital of capital of Iraq by American forces.On December 13 2003 US troops Cptured ibn Talal Hussein Hussein. He was taken into custody for war detestations, crimes against humanity and genocide. With conquest of detaining the Iraqi President this raised a very important question. What do we do with him? Since his crimes were move in Iraq it would onl y make sense that a trial be held there. The Iraqi Interim Government ended up conducting the trial. The United States Established the Iraqi Interim Government afterward the invasion. The confederation Provisional Authority voted to create the Iraqi Special Tribunal (IST), consisting of cinque Iraqi judges. The United states Depart of ripeice aided in the investigation. The jurist also aided in the setting up of the trial. The most challenging part for the US in Aiding the trial was to non get on the whole involved. This became very difficult especially during the trial.The first trial began ahead the Iraqi Special Tribunal on October 19th 2005. At this trial ibn Talal Hussein and seven other defendants were tried for crimes against humanity with regard to events that took place after a failed assassination attempt in Dujail in 1982 by members of the Islmic Dawa Party. A second and separate trial began on 21 August 2006, undertake ibn Talal Hussein and six co-defendants for genocide during the Anfal military campaign against the Kurds of northern Iraq. Saddam may puddle also been tried in absentia for events dating to the IranIraq War and invasion of Kuwait, including war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. During the trial Saddam appeared confident. He denied all charges and tell he was just doing what any good president would do.On November 5 2006 Saddam Hussein was sentenced to expiration by hanging for the killing of 148 Shiites from Dujail, in requital for the assassination attempt. No further action was necessary and Saddam was ordered penalize within 30 days of that date. When sentenced to death Saddam stated Long live the people. Long live the Arab nation. Down with the spies. divinity is great. Saddam Hussein is executed on December 30 2006 at ab tabu 605am. He was hung at an Iraqi army lascivious in Kazimain called Camp Justice. After his achievement all other charges were dropped. On January 15 2007 Saddams co-defendants, Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, his half-brother and Iraqs intelligence chief at the sentence of the Dujail killings, and Awad Hamed al-Bandar, who issued death sentences to Dujail residents as head of a Revolutionary Court, were also sentenced to death by hanging. The former Iraqi vice-president Taha Yassin Ramadan is originally sentenced to life in prison. However, his sentencing changed to death by hanging on 12 February 2007. Ramadans execution took place on March 20th 2007. umteen Viewed the trial as a joke, Stating it as a show trial or a Kangaroo Court Human Rights find tabu stated that Saddams execution follows a flawed trial and marks a significant step a means from the rule of law in Iraq. forgiveness International stated that the trial was unfair, Many believed that the US had heavy mildew on the court this includes Saddams legal counsel Khalil al-Dulaimi. Khalil stated, This court is a animate being of the US military occupation, and the Iraqi court is just a slit and rubber stamp of the invaders. Although galore(postnominal) felt that the US had too more than influence in the trial others believed that they didnt have enough. The trial seemed to have one terminal in mind, and that was revenge. Because the US did not have final exam say in how the trial was conducted the trail was not entirely modeled after our system which has the one goal of legal expert. For example every time a judge would sway towards Saddams side or agree with him on a statement the judge would be replaced with a new judge. This happened many measure. Another example was the way the execution was conducted. The date and place of the execution were secret until the sentence was carried out. The execution was completely absent of respect. Every side of the execution was fueled by revenge. He was ridiculed and humiliated which portraits a sizable message. Although his sentencing in many shots is just, the conduction was not. This runs a huge risk of retaliation which can cause problems in the future. Currently we are finding out that ISIS is a major problem. ISIS (The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant) is an extremist, jihadist group that aimed to set up an Islamic state in Sunni Arab-majority areas of Iraq. Many are former Baathists who seek retaliation. Raouf Abdul Rahman the Kurdish judge who sentenced Saddam Hussein to be executed has himself been captured and executed by ISIS. He was killed by the militants in retaliation for the killing of Saddam Hussein.Martha Minow discussed three issues that were present during the Nuremberg trials that are similar to those in Saddams trial. The three aspects Minow points out that deserve critiquing are retroactivity, politicization, and selectivity. Retroactivity is explained as defendants being charged with charges that were not proclaimed before the start of the trial or didnt exist before the trial. It violates the rule of law because of the laws commitment to apply clear, preexisting norms. Th e second aspect is politicization constructing a group of different institutions and governmental pressures that get rid of personalised independence and norms, such as they did in Nuremberg with the format of the trial, being purse on five different countries that all have different laws and political pressures. Lastly she points out selectivity, which is picking out targets that could be charged with violations. Prosecutorial treat is reflected off of identification of offenders and who is held responsible. It also reflects the chance of finding and arresting offenders. It is establish off of who is selected to be held responsible for the crime at hand. Retroactivity could have vie a role in Saddams Trial. This is because the new Iraqi government was just formed. When Saddam was in power his actions would not be considered a crime under his government, notwithstanding with the newly formed Iraq his actions were criminal. In a way this could be seen as retroactive. The next a spect is politicization The US played a major role in constructing of the trial. Many aspects of it were not the norm of Iraqi culture. This put political pressure on the trial that many did not agree with. Lastly it was difficult to decide who exactly was responsible for what crime. Many crimes committed were done by Saddams or those working under him but some werent exactly clear who was responsible. , Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti and Awad Hamed al-Bandar were executed for crime committed during the Dujail killings. The argument can be made that they were acting under Saddams orders. This cultivate of figuring out who is responsible can be seen as selectivity.The goal of these tribunals is to find justice. This tends to be very difficult do without being diagonal due to the nature of war. Justice is guided by truth, reason and fairness. This is all for the good of the people. Although some may disagree, revenge isnt justice. . In times like this it is hard to determine what is righ t and what is wrong. There is a bewitching line between cruelty and justice. This is a perfect example of how justice can be a double edged sword. Its situations like this that we use up to learn from the past in order to move forward for the future. tap CitedMinow, M. (1998). Between Vengence and Forgiveness. Boston beacon press books.America at a Crossroads The Trial of Saddam Hussein, PBS Jun 4, 2014ANDRE WALKER, http//www.breitbart.com/Breitbart-London/2014/06/23/Saddam-Hussein-Judge-Executed-By-ISIS. 23 Jun 2014.

Gender and Age Difference in Profile Pictures Analysis

Gender and Age Difference in write Pictures outlineMichael NgoAbstractDoes Gender concern the get of pen sees dribbleed on Facebook? Does come on affect a deed of subjects in a write picture? This employment assays to celebrate the latent motivation and personality qualitys associated with an online behavioral action. The hypotheses focus on ripen and sexual practice, ii factors that could explain to a greater extent than or less differences or connaturalities in behavior. A non- observational content analytic thinking was implementd as the design with a sample size of 50 participants (25 fe manful and 25 anthropoids). The duration conclave was divided into two constructs schoolboyish (11-20 years old) and old (21-30 years old). The statistical test found no signifi trickce in gender affecting the occur of indite pictures and advance affecting the subjects in visibility pictures. Further investigation and limitations will be discussed later.Gender and Ag e Difference in pen Pictures Content AnalysisMedia, a term encompassing broadcasting medium such(prenominal) as unfermenteds motif, TV, radio, and internet ingestion, is constantly being scrutinized for its content and its effect on exploiters cognitive, emotional, and mixer behaviors. From the recent shootings of unarmed individuals to Trumps attempt at changing the health policies to topical anaesthetic school charity successes, each media source provides an outlet for students to react and alternate their perspectives. Moreover, media use by students could potentially provide head worders big information on their societal, emotional, and cognitive states. Social networking has grown and is continuing growing throughout the last(prenominal) decade. Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, Instagram, and Tumblr be some of the most popular cordial networking sites newly (Pempek, Yermolayeva, Calvert, 2009). Students use social networks to express themselves through the use of pictures, status updates, posts, and chats. These online expressions could also affect the original posters viewers and the users themselves similar to the larger scale news outlet.Facebook, virtuoso of the most widely used network, can provide a dandy source of learning, especially round school-aged students. Through Facebook, users can sh atomic material body 18 their thoughts through posts and comments, shargon links and opposite media to groups, and upload pictures of themselves or their helpers. The purpose of this paper is to explore the potential motivations, psychological factors, and personality traits behind Facebook users indite pictures. It is important to none that to measure a persons motivation and personality, a researcher moldiness compile a series of test, surveys, and physical interactions among other factors. The point of this research is to examine photo related factors and literature reviews to derive potential reasons for the users action.This current canvas presents the results of a content summary addressing the following research question do gender and age affect the tally of write pictures and the number of subjects in a profile picture? In the theatre of operations, in that location are two hypotheses feminine users will be fuddle a loftyer number of profile pictures than male users in their albums and younger good deal (age 11-20) will have high numbers of subjects in their profile pictures than older plurality (ages 21-30). literature ReviewOver the past six years, there has been an increase in the number of peer-reviewed articles on social networking sites. Many of these studies explore how psychological factors such as personality traits influence the use of social networking sites. spirit traits let in neuroticism, extraversion, low self-confidence, and amour propre when using Facebook (Skues, Williams, Wise, 2012).Some studies claim that participants who were members of more(prenominal) groups on Fa cebook had reported higher levels of extraversion than those with lower levels of extraversion (Skues et al., 2012). Extraverted people use Facebook to maintain consanguinitys with their peers and engage in social activities offline and online. This would explain the littler social group membership among introverts and the larger group membership for extraverts. extraversion could explain why some people upload more profile pictures than others. With a larger friend group, an individual is more inclined to update their photos so that their friends can see what is happening in the users life. Students use Facebook to hang-up in touch with friends and to let others know more about themselves (Pempek et al., 2011). Users whitethorn upload pictures of themselves with multiple subjects to showcase their network and friendship. Subjects may include ones group of friends with studies showing that both the quantity and nature of photos displayed perception of closeness by viewers ( mend elson Papacharissi, 2010). The motivation behind why users would do this could be to seek peer feedback and validation from friends. An introverted individual may not find the necessity to frequently update their profile pictures for their friends.Neuroticism is another trait that has been found to affect how individuals use Facebook. Though there are contrast findings. For example, a study has found that individuals with higher neuroticism levels were less voluntary to share any personal information, but preferred posting on the wall compared to uploading photos (Skues et al., 2012). Another study found that high neurotic individuals were more plausibly to not show their face in pictures than low neurotic individuals (Liu, Moghaddam, Preotiuc-Pietro, Samani, Ungar, 2016). Both individuals with varying neuroticism levels were inclined to share personal information when compared to a middle cohort. With contrasting info, it is difficult to use neuroticism as a factor for explai ning the differences in profile pictures by gender (Liu et al., 2016). self-pride may be another trait that would serve to explain some individuals motivation for their profile pictures. However, there are mixed finding relating to the relationship between self-pride and using Facebook. A study refers that users with low self-esteem spent more time on Facebook and that Facebook may provide a medium to compensate for their low self-esteem (Thompson Lougheed, 2012). Other studies show that Facebook has a positive impact on self-esteem as users are allowed to post what they want the public to see. Oftentimes, users would post positive characteristics and edited photos of themselves to boost their self-esteem. Lastly, other studies found that there is no important association between Facebook and self-esteem (Skues et al., 2012).In Facebook, where disclosing information about oneself and interacting with others is the purpose, researchers found it necessary to examine narcissism and how it can play a role in a users profile. 1 study has shown that higher levels of narcissism predicted more user information and photos affix and more social interaction (Skues et al., 2012). Narcissistic individuals are more likely to check Facebook more frequently and spend more time on the site (Thompson Lougheed, 2012). There is a potential correlation between individuals with high narcissism and the number of profile pictures. The higher the number of profile pictures may relate to the individuals affection towards themselves.However, even with the increase in studies, there are still missing gaps in the literature relating to the personality and motivation analysis from profile pictures especially in the assorted age and gender groups. The studies mentioned to a higher place examines the effect of one or two psychological variable quantitys on Facebook use and not the concurrent do of various variables. There is only a few select study that addresses this gap. One stud y claims from surveys taken by their participants that Facebook users are more extroverted and have higher levels of narcissism compared to non-Facebook users. However, a close review of this study shows that the correlation is weak and get hold ofs more research examining the psychological factors simultaneously.Since investigating the motivation and potential personality traits for gender and age differences in profile picture is a fairly new area of research, this paper serves to add to the ongoing studies and provide further analysis. This study will address the magnitude and existence of behavioral gender and age differences. Facebook was chosen as the main social networking site because Facebook users are diverse, culturally and socially, and their behavior is more natural than other traditional samples. (Tifferet Vilnai-Yavetz, 2014). Two hypotheses were canvas through profile pictures analysis for diametrical gender and age groups.H1 young-bearing(prenominal) users wil l have a higher number of profile pictures than male users in their albums.H2 Younger people (aged 11-20) will have a higher number of subjects in their profile pictures than older people (aged 21-30).Method look for Design and ProceduresA non-experimental analysis was chosen for this study. The profile picture data was collected from my list of an active Facebook friend by utilizing a ergodic number generator online. Each random number represented a friend on my list. For example, the number four would correspond to the 4th friend on my friends list. A sample of 50 friends was used with 25 from females and 25 from males. The criteria for the subjects to participate in this study is to be within the age of 11-30. If a prospective participant was chosen and did not fit the age group, I would proceed to the next available person.MeasuresWhether age and gender affected Facebook users profile pictures was the focus of this study. Gender differences (male or female) and the number of p rofile pictures were the predictor variable and criterion variable, respectively, of the first hypothesis. Age differences and number of subjects in profile pictures are the main focus of the second hypothesis. Two age groups were defined, young with people ages 11-20 and older with people ages 21-30, for the predictor variable. The criterion variable, number of subjects in the profile picture, is divided into four constructs single (themselves), couple (subject and one person), group (3 or more), and others (no people) (Hum, Chamberlin, Hambright, Portwood, Schat, Bevan, 2011).statistical AnalysisI listed the scale of measurement for Gender as nominal (female or male) and Number of Profile Pictures as a ratio. Because this is a group difference question, I chose to result an independent t-test for opening H1. For Hypothesis H2, I listed Age (young and older) and Number of Subjects (4 categories) as nominal and chose to conduct a chi-square test.ResultsThere was no significant di fference between Gender and Profile Pictures (H1) and Age and Subjects in Profile Pictures (H2). Using Levenes test, there were no similar variance between gender and profile pictures (construct, F(xx)=xx, p= 0.295). The variability in the conditions is not significantly different.Hypothesis H1 was not statistically significant. The independent t test disproved the hypothesis and the results can be viewed in remit 1. The t-test shows that the male (M= 46.40, SD= 49.79) and female (M=39.28, SD= 36.45) did not influence the number of profile pictures a Facebook user would have, t (0.577), p 0.05. Females do not have a higher number of profile pictures than males in this case. Thus, Hypothesis H1 was not supported. Hypothesis H2 was not statistically significant, and the results are shown in Table 2. The statistics X 2 (5)= 2.285 and p= 0.808 (P0.05) indicates that there was no association found between age groups and subjects in profile pictures. Hypothesis H2 was not supported.Discu ssionThe research behind the use of social networking sites is still growing especially with teenagers and college students population. Previous studies show that personality traits can be inferred from the use of Facebook and profile pictures (Skues et al., 2012). However, there is little research on gender and age differences and potential effects on Facebook functions like profile pictures. The purpose of this study is to explore if gender affects the number of profile pictures and if age determines the likelihood of a number of subjects in a profile picture to support potential data on personality traits and motivations.Two hypotheses were presented and statistically tested. Profiles based on gender and age were chosen and profile pictures were analyzed. Statistical results showed no significance for both gender and number of profile pictures and age and subjects in profile pictures. This meant that both gender and age group have more similarities than differences. This could be due to a separate set of social norms for online users compared to offline users. In real life, gender roles and expected behavior has been established however, in the virtual world, there are nuances and a completely different subculture that has not been studied yet. These subcultures may disregard gender and may focus more on social structures and practices that shape behavior (Hum et al., 2011). This data may suggest that men and women have the same motivation or similar traits that tell their actions. Further study would be required to collect more data and complete a thorough analysis, though this is a good start.LimitationsThe deprivation of significance can be due to limitations of the study. The sample size of the study was only 50 profiles. If there were more samples, then the data may have changed to show a significance result. In addition, because of Facebook and IRB regulations, I would need to get informed consent from participants (Hum et al., 2011). The authority to avoid obtaining consent would be to use my own Friend list, making this sample population not random or representative of the Facebook population. A solution would be to conduct the study with the consent of random Facebook users.Further Research This study is an experimental non-experimental design. The data and results could be used to explain with some potential theories about personality traits and motivation, but it does not show correlation or relationship. In order to a relationship or correlation to be determined, an experimental design is required. This study does provide a foundation for future research. A quasi-experimental design is recommended. The dependent variable would be how frequent Facebook users update their profile picture and statuses and the independent variables would be personality trait test results on Narcissism and Self-Esteem. The purpose of this study would be to determine a more direct approach between the personality trait and Facebook usage. Th is would explain how psychological factors can influence people to act a certain way and add on to online social and behavioral data. The sample size would be larger (n=200) and more diverse (from different regions of the world). This would provide a more representative sample of the Facebook community. The independent personality trait tests would have different operational definitions each and the dependent variable would also have different constructs. The age of Facebook users may be confined to a range (18-30) to study a specific populations behavior.ReferencesHum, N. J., Chamberlin, P. E., Hambright, B. L., Portwood, A. C., Schat, A. C., Bevan, J. L. (2011). A picture is worth a kB words A content analysis of Facebook profile photographs. Computers in homosexual Behavior, 27(5), 1828-1833. inside10.1016/j.chb.2011.04.003Tifferet, S., Vilnai-Yavetz, I. (2014). Gender differences in Facebook self-presentation An international randomized study. Computers in military personnel Behavior, 35, 388-399. doi10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.016Mendelson, A. L. and Papacharissi, Z. A. , 2010-06-22 Look at Us Collective Narcissism in College Student Facebook Photo Galleries Paper presented at the annual meeting of the world-wide Communication Association, Suntec Singapore International Convention Exhibition Centre, Suntec City, Singapore Online . 2014-11-27 from http//citation.allacademic.com/meta/p404764_index.htmlSkues, J. L., Williams, B., Wise, L. (2012). The effects of personality traits, self-esteem, loneliness, and narcissism on Facebook use among university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(6), 2414-2419. doi10.1016/j.chb.2012.07.012Pempek, T. A., Yermolayeva, Y. A., Calvert, S. L. (2009). College students social networking experiences on Facebook. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,30(3), 227-238. doi10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.010Liu, L., Moghaddam, M.E., Preotiuc-Pietro, D., Samani, Z.R., Ungar, L.H. (2016). Analyzing Personality through Socia l Media Profile Picture Choice. ICWSM.Thompson, S. H., Lougheed, E. (2012). Frazzled by Facebook? An Exploratory athletic field of Gender Differences in Social Network Communication among Undergraduate Men and Women Abstract. College Student Journal, 46(1), 88-98. Retrieved March 28, 2017, from http//web3.apiu.edu/researchfile/Research%20Materials/Communication/Frazzled%20by%20facebook-an%20exploratory%20study%20of%20gender%20differences%20in%20social%20network%20communication%20undergraduate%20men%20and%20women.pdfAppendix ATable 1Difference Profile Pictures between Females and MalesGenderMaleFemaletdfProfile Pictures46.40(49.79)39.29(36.45)0.57748Note. P 0.05.*=p .05, **= p .01,***=p .001. archetype Deviations appear in parentheses below means.Appendix BTable 2Crosstabulation of Facebook Users Age and Number of Subjects in Profile PicturesAgeSubjects in Profile Pictures2SingleCoupleGroupOthersYoung96022.285.808Old19914Note. P .05.